Norman (Viking) costume

The Normans are North Germanic peoples, the ancestors of the inhabitants of the Scandinavian states, who entered history as the last of the Germans - at the very beginning of the Middle Ages. They did not take an active part in the raids of their fellow tribesmen on the Roman Empire, but, as is known, they preserved - in the northern version - many heroic tales and songs lost by those.

Some of these northern Germans advanced from the far north to the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula - they were called Normans; in the east of the peninsula, the Swedes settled west of Lake Mälaren and south of the coastal plains, and around 1164 united around a common religious center and royal court in Uppsala. The northern peoples waged their wars mainly in the eastern regions, on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, where they also advanced. In the struggle with the Finnish, Latvian and Slavic tribes that lived there, a strong eastern state was formed. With the conquest of southern Sweden, the Baltic Sea islands and Jutland, the Normans achieved exclusive dominance over the territory of the three modern northern states.

The old song talks about a free man with a combed beard, an open forehead, in tight-fitting clothes, who tames bulls, walks behind the plow, builds houses; about the mistress of the house in simple clothes, a cap, a scarf on her shoulders, with jewelry on her neck - she spins thin yarn; finally, about the upper class - the jarls, who practice throwing spears, horse riding, and learn to swim across the Sound.

The clothing of the Normans who moved from Normandy to England under the command of William the Conqueror gives us a complete understanding of the carpet, according to legend, personally embroidered by Matilda of Flanders, William's wife, in memory of the conquest of England.

Men are depicted on this carpet in belted, semi-long jackets with narrow sleeves; noble leaders in long jackets reaching to their feet, without folds in the waist. Noble people probably wore a shirt under such a jacket, which came into use among the Anglo-Saxons; The lower classes of the Normans began to use the shirt only from the 13th century. Long jackets served old people for quite a long time; noble youth switched to short ones.

The cloak was rectangular in shape; it was fastened on the right shoulder either with a buckle or with a cord with a tassel.

At first, jackets and raincoats for the lower classes were made mainly from skins, and from the 12th century, woolen material came into use. The Normans wore long trousers or stockings; they were wrapped in bandages up to the knees and sometimes up to the feet. Long stockings were made from linen, first one-color, and then striped. Rich people also wore silk stockings.

Headbands, which were replaced by simple belts among the mob, were decorated with expensive tassels among rich people. Shoes were ankle boots, something like leather stockings, which the nobility decorated with all kinds of embroidery. By the end of the 11th century, pointed shoes appeared.

The headdress was a cap that fit tightly to the head and was tied under the chin. However, there were also fur and felt hats, umbrella-shaped, and sometimes round or cup-shaped.

Gloves were considered a great luxury: they were worn only by kings, high clergy and wealthy nobility.

The Normans had no particular passion for precious jewelry. They wore their hair cut short at the front, the back half of their heads were almost completely shaved, and their faces were always clean-shaven.

In the 12th century, a certain desire for luxury was already noticed, and the clothing of noble people changed dramatically in shape. A short and narrow jacket becomes long and wide. The sleeves are also made wider and longer, falling below the hands and leaning back. It is customary to wear two jackets; the upper one had rich embroidery around the edges, and the lower one trailed along the ground. Over a short jacket they often wore a half-long cloak with a hood, tightly covering the body and fastening on the chest, the seams of which were decorated with embroidery. Cloaks were often lined with fur.

They began to wear pointed shoes; the ends were given the shape of a beak or horn. The hairstyle also changed dramatically: the hair was no longer shaved at the back of the head, but, on the contrary, was allowed to grow as long as possible. During the reign of King Stephen, even wigs appeared in high society. Hair began to be pomaded, curled and secured with cords and ribbons.

In the 13th century, a sharp change occurred again: they began to wear short clothes; the sleeves become so narrow that they are sewn forked to the elbow and fastened only after the arm has already been inserted into them.

The hooded cloak fell to the calves; his sleeves seemed like the end of a cape that began at the shoulders and fell down the back. They also wore a cloak with a hood, which had slits on both sides down to the shoulders; its front part could be thrown behind the back at will. Cloaks were made either of coarse woolen material and were used for riding, or of thin material, often silk, and worn as festive attire.

The courtiers and even the king dressed in the same way as noble people; There were no special court costumes, nor any special royal attire. The latter differed only in that it was made of very expensive material and decorated with gold and precious stones.

The nobility still used sandals that consisted of leather soles with red cloth garters or gilded straps, which were tied crosswise on the foot, and often covered the entire leg in the form of chessboards.

The headdress was a beret with a flat bottom and a straight visor. Kings, princes, bishops and nobles wore gloves with richly embroidered gauntlets that reached to the elbow. Along with long, skillfully curled hair, they began to wear a beard and mustache. In addition to belt decorations and buckles for cloaks, other precious jewelry began to come into fashion. The signs of supreme power were the crown, scepter and orb.

In the images, each king has a specially shaped crown. Most often - a crown decorated with expensive stones and pearls with four teeth rising upward; Little Red Riding Hood began to be attached to such crowns only in later times. The scepter was a rod, approximately 2/2-3 feet long, with precious stones, ending in a flower cup or trident leaf.

Norman women first wore a long dress over their shirt, the sleeves of which were so narrow that they had to be cut in the front and buttoned or laced; a white shirt was visible between the buttons or laces. Roba, outer dress, fit tightly in the upper part of the body; its lower part was very wide. The sleeves fit tightly around the arm to the elbow, and sometimes to the hand, but then they immediately opened up and fell to the ground in wide, open bags. These bags were lined with light fabric of bright colors - they were worn only by women of the highest circle.

The neckline, sleeves and lower edge of the outerwear were trimmed with wide, luxuriously embroidered stripes. At first, dresses rarely had belts, but one would think that the skirt was raised by strips of material.

One image shows a lady wearing gloves, to which are attached wings made of material that fall to the ground. Norman women wore their hair loose or braided in two or even several braids. The head was covered with a rather long scarf made of the finest fabrics, which could even replace a cloak. The neck was covered with a scarf made of thin fabric, mostly white, over the neckline of the dress and down to the chin.

I. Viking in animal skin pants.

2. Viking (Norman) in a bronze helmet and blouse with a pattern around the edge. 1 and 2 are from bronze plates found on the island of Öland.

3, 4. Normans in iron and bronze helmets of various shapes. VII - X centuries

5. Norman warriors. Leather armor with jagged edges. 9th century Britannia.

1-3. Warriors. Middle - with a trumpet like an Alpine horn, 1 - dressed in sagurr

4. Leader of the army with a standard.

Materials used in the article

Sidorenko V.I. History of styles in art and costume

Lyudmila Kibalova, Olga Gerbenova, Milena Lamarova. "Illustrated encyclopedia of FASHION. Translation into Russian by I.M. Ilyinskaya and A.A. Loseva

Komissarzhevsky F.P. History of the costume

Wolfgang Brun, Max Tilke "HISTORY OF COSTUME from antiquity to modern times"

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Historical sketch

Just like women's costume, Viking Age men's clothing was part of a tradition dating back to ancient times. Tacitus described Germanic clothing of the Roman Iron Age in his work "Germania", ch. 17:

Tegumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, spina consertum: cetera intecti totos dies iuxta atque ignem agunt. Locupletissimi veste distinguuntur, non fluitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singulos artus exprimente. Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae neglegenter, ulteriires exquisitius, ut quibus nullus per commercial cultus. Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum, quas exterior Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit.

Everyone's outerwear is a short cloak, fastened with a buckle, or if there is none, then with a spike. Not covered by anything else, they spend whole days near the fire lit in the hearth. The richest are distinguished by the fact that, in addition to the cloak, they also wear other clothes, but not fluttering, like the Sarmatians or Parthians, but narrow and tight-fitting to the body. They also wear the skins of wild animals, those that live along the banks of the river - whatever they have, those that are far from them - with a choice, since they do not have clothing supplied by trade. The latter kill animals selectively and, after removing the fur, sew onto the skin pieces of fur from animals generated by the outer Ocean or an unknown sea.

The cloaks described by Tacitus are represented in archeology by a surprisingly large number of fragments, the best preserved of which come from swamps. These are large rectangular pieces of wool twill, measuring approximately 8 ft x 5 ft 6 in (2.5 x 1.5 m), very often decorated with plank-woven edges and tassels. These cloaks are usually presented as masterpieces of weaving, in the sense that they could only be afforded by the very rich, but the actual weave of the cloaks is never exceptional. Jorgensen points out that while modern weavers may have attempted to produce neat replicas, only the wide plank-woven edges of the best examples are of outstanding quality, and even these would have been much more easily woven by ancient weavers than by modern imitators. Many cloaks lack these wide edges, some have narrower edges, and others have no edge at all; these simpler types may be underrepresented among the finds and are perhaps more typical of the common Germanic cloak.

44 Wool shirt and wool breeches with sewn socks from Torsbjerg, Germany

Tacitus hints that clothing other than the cloak was rare among the Germans, and Caesar also noted that the Germans dressed very lightly. Some Roman sculptures confirm that they may have worn nothing more than a cloak, while a significant number of Roman sculptures depict the Germans wearing trousers and shirts, sometimes just as tight as Tacitus described them. At least in subsequent centuries, these clothing items will become an integral part of everyday costume.

Word kameez('shirt') appeared in Latin towards the end of the Roman period, denoting a close-fitting linen tunic with long, narrow sleeves (Jerome, Letters, Book 64, no.II); this form of clothing was very different from the traditional baggy Roman tunic. The etymology of the Latin word apparently leads through Gaulish to a Germanic root, and the garment it describes may also have come from Iron Age Germany. A long-sleeve, narrowly tailored shirt, the kameez is in fact completely consistent with the Gallic costume described by Strabo and the tight-fitting Germanic clothing mentioned by Tacitus. By and large, a Roman-era find from Thorsbjerg, Germany, closely matches these descriptions, although it is made of good wool diamond twill rather than linen; it is only 22½ inches (57 cm) wide and is laced on both sides for a tighter fit (44.45).

45 Shirt pattern from Torsbjorg. The sleeves are positioned so that the seam meets the back about 3 inches (7 cm) below the shoulder seam. The lower part of the sleeves is decorated with diagonal stitching across the fabric. The sides of the shirt are secured with ties. Scale 1:15.

Also from Thorsbjerg come two pairs of long, tight-fitting trousers (44, 46). These, as well as a very simple pair of pants from Damendorf, Germany, display essentially the same, outstanding construction. The pant leg is made from one piece of fabric, cut straight at the back and with a curved front edge. The seam on the leg runs up to meet a separate rectangular or trapezoidal seat, and one or two pieces are usually gathered into the crotch. The band around the top of the pants has simple belt loops. This design must have evolved from separate stockings that were simply joined together with additional pieces of fabric at the top of the leg. Both pairs of pants from Torsbjerg have socks; in one pair they are part of the pants, in the other they were sewn on, as if they were a later addition, but on the other hand, these socks could replace the previous ones, which had finally worn out. The legs of Damendorf's pants were torn off at the bottom, so we can't tell if they ended in socks. Similar pants and socks are depicted in a fresco of a late Roman aristocrat in Silistra, Bulgaria. But in the time of Tacitus, trousers were the epitome of barbarism, so the example had to appear outside the Roman world.

46 Patterns of pants from Germany in Roman times. A) from above: F.S.3684. Thorsbjerg B) opposite from above: F.S.3685. Thorsbjerg B) opposite from below: Damendorf. Scale 1:15.

Some four centuries after Tacitus, the Halo-Roman Sidonius Apollinaris described the cortege of the German prince Sigismer (Letters, Book 4, no.20):

… quorum pedes primi perone saetoso talos adusque vinciebantur; genua crura suraeque sine tegmine; praeter hoc vestis alta stricta versicolor vix appropinquans poplitibus exertis; manicae sola brachiorum principia velantes; viridantia saga limbis marginata punaceis…

... their feet were laced up to the ankles in boots made of hard leather; knees, shins and calves without cover; in addition to this, very narrow colored robes barely reached their bare knees, the sleeves covering only the top of the arm; green cloaks are bordered by a red border...

Sidonius continues the story by saying that they were decorated with reindeer skins, which raises the possibility that Sigismer could in fact be a Scandinavian prince.

Like Tacitus before him, Sidonius noted the typical Germanic cloaks and short, tight-fitting clothing. These men also did not wear pants, or their pants ended above the knee. The short sleeves in this description correspond to a pair of sleeveless tunics from Northern Germany, from Obnaltendorf (47) and Marx-Etzel. The 34-inch (87 cm) Marx-Hetzel tunic is wide enough at the shoulders to allow for the appearance of short sleeves, as described by Sidonius. Just like the tunic, a pair of knee-length woolen trousers, the same type that might have been worn by Sigismer's retinue, was found at Marks-Metzel (48).

Two descriptions of Frankish dress come directly from the Viking Age, and I present them here for the sake of introducing a parallel sartorial tradition that shared a common lineage with and existed alongside Scandinavian costume. There were long-term contacts between the Franks and Scandinavians through trade, migrations and wars, and in 826 the Danish king Klakk-Harald returned from the court of the Frankish ruler with the gift of beautiful clothes. The first description belongs to Einhard, a contemporary of Charlemagne. His biography of the emperor, Vita Karoli, was written in 829-36. and contained a description of his typical attire (ch. 23):

Vestitu patrio, id est Francico, utebatur. Ad corpus camisam lineam, et feminalibus lineis induebatur, deinde tunicam, quae limbo serico ambiebatur, et tibialia; tum fasciolis crura et pedescalciamentis constringebat et ex pellibus lutrinis vel murinis thorace confecto umeros ac pectus hieme muniebat, sago veneto amictus…

He wore the clothes of his nation, the Franks: then on his body he put on a linen shirt and linen trousers; then a tunic edged with silk and stockings; then he wrapped the knees in linen ribbons and put shoes on his feet; and a jacket made of otter or ermine skin protected his shoulders and torso in winter; he wore a blue coat...

A monk of Saint Gall, sometimes identified as Notker, wrote a letter reporting on the reign of the Charles, called De Carolo Magno, dating from 883-4. It contains additional descriptions of traditional Frankish dress, which differ in some points from Einhard's description of the emperor. The Frankish clothing described here is so rich that it could only be worn by members of the nobility and the rich:

Erat antiquarum ornatus vel paratura Francorum: calciamenta forinsecus aurata, corrigiis tricubitalibus insignita, fasciole crurales vermiculate, et subtus eas tibialia vel coxalia linea, quamvis ex eodem colore, tamen opera artificiosissimo variata. Super que et fasciolas in crucis modum intrinsecus et extrinsecus, ante et retro, longissime elle corrigie tendebantur. Deinde camisia clizana, post hec balteus spate colligatus…

Ultimum habitus eorum erat pallium canum vel saphirinum quadrangulum duplex sic farmatum, ut cum imponeretur humeris, ante et retro pedes tangeret, de lateribus vero vix genua contegeret.

Such were the outfits or attire of the Franks in former times: shoes, gilded on the outside, decorated with laces three cubits long, ribbons painted with kermes on the legs, and under them stockings and trousers made of linen, of the same color, but distinguished by more intricate workmanship. On top of them and the ribbons, inside and outside, in front and behind, long laces were laid in the form of a cross. Next is a shirt made of soft linen, followed by a decorated sword belt...

The last of their garments was a cloak, white or blue, in the shape of a double square, so that, being worn over the shoulders, it reached the feet in front and behind, but at the sides it barely covered the knees.

Cross-shaped laces similar to those described here were also worn by a young aristocrat buried in St. Severin's Cathedral, Cologne, Germany, in the eighth century. Under the long laces of their sheepskin he was wearing white linen windings.

For now, it would be wrong to portray German fashion as unchanged during the hundreds of years between Tacitus and Cnut. However, there are an unexpected number of parallels and similarities between what we know about Germanic dress of the Roman period and Scandinavian fashion of the Viking Age.

47 pattern of a sleeveless woolen tunic of Roman times

LINEN CLOTHES

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48 Brilliantly simple pattern for short breeches from Marx-Hetzel, Germany. The front flap folds under the crotch and attaches to the waistband. A similar principle could be used for linen breeches. Scale 1:15.

One noticeable difference is the distribution of flax in Viking Age Sweden and Denmark. Archaeological evidence shows that Vikings may have been buried wearing linen shirts, which were worn with a belt and often a cloak, but no wool overshirt or tunic. A silver buckle from a Viking burial at Balladula, Isle of Man, contained the remains of very finely woven linen, which must have belonged to the deceased's shirt. Similar finds from Hedeby indicate that shirts were made exclusively from high-quality Z-twist plain weave fabric, which is indicative of either linen or perhaps a lightweight woolen fabric with a similar effect. Fragments of woolen linen from Hedeby Harbor (57), identified by Inga Högg as the remains of a shirt, are not consistent with the fragments noted on the buckles in question.

49 A fragment of Arbman’s burial plan bj.905 from Birka, including a horseshoe-shaped fibula (1), an iron knife (3), bronze clothes hooks (6) and a bead. Arbman 1944

In burial bj.944 Birki, the remains of a linen shirt decorated with silk and silver braid were discovered. The shirt was worn under a caftan, but this cannot mean that the shirt was used exclusively as underwear or nightwear; its rich trim indicates that this shirt was intended for display, and was often worn without a caftan. Another ornate linen fragment from Llan Gors, Wales, dating from the late ninth to early tenth centuries, may have been from a shirt and was embroidered with colored silk threads. Orkneyinga saga, ch. 55, describes a linen robe, richly decorated with gold, which could also be a linen shirt.

Linen shirts were also worn by other Germanic peoples. As we can see, Germanic fashion seems to have led to the introduction of the linen camisia into the Roman world, while the traditional dress of the Franks, described in De Carolo Magno, included a linen shirt worn directly under the cloak, without a woolen tunic. Also the Frankish Annals of St. Bertin preparing a linen shirt (camisia) for the wealthy citizen Therouanne in a message for 862. White linen shirts can also be seen in illustrations of the Carolingian manuscript, especially in the miniature of the First Bible of Charles the Bald (Vivian Bible, Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat I). Paul Deacon, writing in the eighth century, informs us that both the early Lombards and the contemporary English also wore predominantly linen clothing (maxime linea, Historia Langobardum, Book 4, ch. 22; the bright trim he mentions also suggests the high status of the wearer) . Also linen shirts are mentioned by Bede and Aldhelm in an Anglo-Saxon context. The Byzantine Leo the Deacon wrote that Svyatoslav, the tenth-century prince of the Rus, and his retinue were dressed in simple linen shirts. Thus, Scandinavian linen shirts were part of the all-German tradition.

According to the Vita Caroli and De Carolo Magno, the Franks wore linen trousers. The rich Frankish costume described in De Carolo Magno included trousers made of kermes-dyed linen and undoubtedly decorated with embroidery. But the majority had to be plain linen, bleached or unbleached. Frankish sources De Carolo Magno and Vita Caroli indicate that linen trousers were worn without woolen outer trousers, but with windings and stockings.

Unique among the finds from Birka are two small hooks from burial bj.905, located directly under the knees (49). Hooks were attached to strong woolen leg warmers covering the lower part of the leg, and they were hooked onto iron loops, which apparently were attached to knee-length linen pants. This rare in situ discovery of Viking hosiery confirms our suspicions that the Scandinavians, like the Franks, could only wear linen trousers.

In the Icelandic sagas, 'shirt' (skyrta) and linen trousers (lín-brœkr) are usually grouped under one concept 'linen clothing' (lín-klœði). The phrase may suggest a state of undress, but it should not mean that the linen clothing was simply underwear or nightwear. Linen clothing was worn on the naked body, and the rest of the clothing (such as a cloak, hat, shoes and windings) was worn over it, but the shirt and linen trousers remained visible and were undoubtedly the basis of the entire costume. Far from suggesting anything unusual about wearing linen, the expression 'in linen clothes' (í linkœđum) in the saga actually indicates that linen clothing was ubiquitous, but it was strange to wear only linen outside the home. In Fljótsdœla saga, ch. 18, Gunnar gets up at night to go to the privy, dressed in linen, and this should be the usual context for such a half-dressed state, which should have made it equally familiar to readers and author.

Although linen was a late arrival to Scandinavia, it was received with enthusiasm and became widespread even before the Viking Age. Thus, despite the harsh climate, it would make sense to place the Viking Age Scandinavians alongside other linen-wearing Germanic peoples. The Viking attitude towards linen was probably similar to that depicted in the eleventh-century Latin polemical poem Conflictus Ovis et Lini, which noted that although woolen clothing was worn in bad weather, linen was always worn (l. 139-56). .

However, it is worth making an exception for the inhabitants of Gotland and western Norway, where flax was probably little used in Viking times. And this may also be true of the early Icelanders; So in Fljótsdœla saga, ch. 16, Ketil puts on a woolen shirt and trousers, and the author of the saga notes that the same linen clothes were not worn ‘at that time’. At the same time, Adam of Bremen confirms that at the end of the Viking Age the Norwegians relied entirely on their own wool to make clothing.

SHIRT. SHIRT PATTERN

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In the sagas, ‘linen clothing’ is sometimes described by the phrase skyrta ok línbrœkr, ‘shirt and linen trousers’. While the fabric for brœkr is specifically specified as linen, the fabric for skyrta can obviously be defined tentatively. For medieval Icelanders at the time, skyrta must always, or almost always, have been linen, and there is ample evidence that Viking Age shirts were made from linen. A group of linen fragments from Viking Age York have been interpreted as the remains of a child's shirt. Fragments of a linen shirt were found in Birka, and traces of linen clothing are often found along with belt buckles in male burials. But the most impressive archaeological find is a nearly intact linen shirt from Viborg, Denmark (50, 51). The extant shirt from Viborg, which comes from a burial possibly dated 1018, has a quality very similar to fragments from the burials at Hedeby. The finds are truly amazing, since such preservation of flax is very unusual for Northern Europe.

50 Fragments of an early eleventh-century linen shirt from Viborg, Denmark, after conservation. Scale 1:15. Drawing by Margit Petersen

One might perhaps contrast the linen skyrta or 'shirt' of the sag with the kyrtill or 'kirtle', which appears to have been usually made of wool. However, it seems that kyrtill is unknown in early poetry except in Rígsþula art. 23; it occurs in the saga stanzas as skinn-kyrtill or 'skin-kirtle', but this, like the bride dressed in 'geitakyrtlu', from Rígsþula, implies clothing made of fur or skins rather than wool, as does Ottar of Norway told King Alfred that he traded in fur kirtles made from the skins of bears or otters (berenne kyrtel oððe yterenne), which he apparently acquired from the Sami. Thus the Viking word 'kirtle' may have meant a different garment from the woolen kirtle in the sagas, perhaps meaning a vest or thorax, described below. Likewise, skyrta cannot be defined as linen clothing, and the mention of a ‘woolen shirt’ in Fljótsdœla saga, ch. 16, accurately reflects the historical reality of Iceland and western Norway, where flax was little used during the Viking Age. Therefore, the word 'shirt' is used here regardless of whether the garment is made of linen or wool.

51 Reconstruction of a shirt from Viborg, front view. The square collar has a slit on the right and opens with sliding knots to reveal the lining, which also has a slit on the left. The lining is secured at the back and front with a series of decorative stitches; There is lining only on the torso. The shirt narrows somewhat towards the waist, the fabric folds and the back flap overlaps the front. Scale 1:15

52 Pattern of a woolen tunic from Ripshold Mous, Netherlands, dating from the first or second centuries AD. e. The entire garment is woven as one figured piece, including the sleeves and collar. At 45 inches (115 cm) in length, it is much larger than its typical German equivalent, represented by the Thorsbjerg shirt. Scale 1:15

After the introduction of linen, a Scandinavian man might begin to wear a second wool shirt over a linen shirt, and this double-layering is sometimes seen in illustrations of the larger Viking world, as in the image of King Edward on his deathbed in the Bayeux Tapestry. This new distinction between lower and upper shirts may have led to the redefinition of the term kyrtill at the end of the Viking Age. However, an outer shirt was not always worn; it was not used by Notker's Franks or Paul Deacon's English, while the author of Konungs Skuggsjá finds it necessary to give instructions against wearing flax on top even in thirteenth-century Norway.

Etymologically, the word skyrta, ‘ shirt’ probably describes a piece of clothing cut from cloth, as opposed to a garment like a cloak, which may have been woven entirely. Like the cloak, the Roman-style tunic could also be woven in one piece, as is the extant tunic from Reepsholt Mose, Netherlands, which was woven in one piece, including the sleeves and collar (52). But clothes cut to size are preferable from the point of view of ease of weaving, and this is undoubtedly an important characteristic of skyrta.

In the song Rígsþula, art. 15, the shirt worn by Afi, a free farmer, is described as ‘tight-fitting’ (þröngr). The narrowness of the farmer's clothing may have distinguished it from the clothing of the slaves in the early poems, which may have been the kufl, a relatively shapeless woolen garment. Being tight around the arms and body, the skyrta was probably tight around the neck as well. So in Laxdæla saga, ch. 35, Gudrun divorces her husband because of a woman's loose-neck shirt she made for him (see above, ch. 1).

The pattern of the shirt from Viborg is noticeably different from what we know about oriental shirts, such as the shirt from Antinoе. Among other differences, while the Antinoë shirt widened below the junction with the sleeves, the Viborg shirt not only remains tight-fitting along the entire length, but actually tapers slightly at the waist. The difference is the same as that noted by Tacitus between German clothing and the clothing of the Sarmatians and Parthians.

LENGTH

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Like the Thorsbjerg shirt (44, 45), which was only 34 inches (86 cm) long, Migration and Vendel era shirts could often be quite short. A fifth-century shirt from Högom, Sweden was only 28 inches (70 cm) long from shoulders to hem, extending only 4-6 inches (12-15 cm) below the waist (53). Similar short shirts, barely reaching the top of the thigh, can be seen on the cart and tapestry from Oseberg (54), as well as stones from Gotland (60), rune stones from Sweden and sculpture from England.

As well as shirts no longer than the top of the thighs, the Oseberg tapestry also depicts a man in a shirt almost reaching to the knee, and a similar pattern is often found on stones from Gotland and Anglo-Norwegian carvings; The shirt worn by the hanged man in the Oseberg tapestry has a knee-length skirt with a central slit.

Such a long shirt is common in illustrations in manuscripts such as the Liber Vitae of King Cnut (55) and the Bayeux Tapestry. The Viborg shirt from the early eleventh century was 37 inches (94 cm) long from shoulders to hem, and the same size at the waist; it was a fairly tight-fitting garment, but not particularly short (50, 51). A peculiar shirt from Bernunthsfeld, Germany, dating from 660 – 870. AD, was 41 inches (105 cm) long and was supposed to cover the wearer's knees (56).

53 Pattern for a fifth-century woolen shirt from Högom, Sweden. The authors of the reconstruction are Knockaert and Landwall. The extra piece of fabric inserted on the left is not actually part of the original washbasin, but was added to give the wearer a normal girth. Mastab 1:15	54 Male figure from the procession scene in the Oseberg tapestry. Like most of the men in this scene, he is wearing a short shirt and wide pants. Over the shirt he wears a short cloak: the hem line and the triangular opening at the neck suggest a paenula type model with a slit at the neck (cf. 66b). From an illustration by M. Storm

Although the short cut must have become less popular during the late Viking Age, perhaps influenced by English and European fashion, the long cut seems to have existed in Scandinavia from the beginning of the era. Short clothing could apparently be worn by wealthy men, since a Högom chief was clearly of high status; Probably, men who used to ride horses preferred short clothes that did not cover the saddle.

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Notes

2. This refers to the scale in the original book. Since there is no ruler, I cannot guarantee that the scale will match.

3. Kermes, an insect from the same family as cochineal. Lives on oak leaves (Quercus coccifera), in the south. Europe (Spain, Italy, Archipelago); from dried insects (females) treated with vinegar. acid, purple dye is extracted, which was in great use in antiquity and the Middle Ages, and is still in use today. for dyeing wool products. (Brockhaus and Efron dictionary).

4. The Orkney Saga

5. The saga of the people from the River Valley. Not translated into Russian.

6. In the Russian translation of the sagas, perhaps “jacket” or “fur coat”, it is necessary to clarify. The English Dictionary gives the following definition of “kirtle”: 1) A woman’s skirt or dress; 2) men's jacket

7. “Song of Riga” by the Elder Edda

8. Kirtle from skin

9. The Russian translation of the song states “the housewife in clothes made of goat hair” (the author of the translation has not yet been identified). However, the English translation (by Olive Bray) says “maiden in goat-skin kirtle”, i.e. "maiden in goatskin kirtle". For us, the difference is fundamental, it seems to me.

11. "Speculum Regale" or "Mirror of the King". The book was written around 1250 in Old Norse by an anonymous author.

12. "The Saga of the Salmon Valley People"

translation: Sergey “Guests” Mishanin 2008

Description of the presentation by individual slides:

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Goals and objectives of the project work Goal: based on written and material sources, to give a general idea of ​​the women's costume of Scandinavia in the 9th-11th centuries. in the context of reflecting the socio-economic and ethnocultural history of the region. Tasks during the project: 1. Reconstruct a Scandinavian women's costume (based on materials from the burial monuments of Birka, Hedeby), based on the information received, make clothes for the doll; 2. Develop key social and labor educational competencies; social activity, the ability to analyze, compare information, draw conclusions and create with your own hands what is intended; 5. Form aesthetic needs and values.

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Data on women's costume of the Viking Age of the 9th-11th centuries. fragmentary. This is explained by the fact that at the early stage of archaeological study (in the 19th century), researchers were more interested in “striking” finds: swords, brooches, etc., while “ordinary” finds, such as textile remains, often remained out of sight. Findings of clothing fragments therefore either simply disappeared or ended up in museum collections for a long time. Agnes Geijer was the first to show academic interest in the Birka textile finds. By the time her research began, all hope of accurately reconstructing the clothing had already disappeared. At the same time, layers of fabric were preserved on tortoiseshell and other brooches, so it was known how many layers of clothing were worn, but no idea what the individual costume looked like. As a result, her work was published only in 1938. Geyer reconstructed the undershirt, over which was worn a “pinafore arrangement” with straps that were fastened with tortoiseshell brooches. Many famous researchers, such as M. Hald in 1950 and Inga Hagg in 1974, continued Geyer's work, and their reconstructions of Scandinavian women's Viking Age costume went into print. History of the study of Scandinavian costume of the Viking Age

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Clothes of the nobility Undershirts remained without folds in the 9th century, but in the 10th century they were more often pleated. They reached ankle length and were fastened (in the 10th century) at the throat with an ordinary round fibula. It is assumed that this was a garment with pleats along the entire length of the body, to which pleated sleeves were sewn. These "folded shirts" were tied around the neck with a cord. Pleated sleeves are reconstructed with either longitudinal or transverse folds. Inga Hegg showed, based on an analysis of corrosion on the backs of the brooches, that the folds ran horizontally, around the arms.

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Remains of an underdress were also discovered in Hedeby, a large Danish trading center. They were also pleated, or, in a simpler version, with a hem widened by gussets. One of the finds was very long, lined with down and decorated with buttons from the ankle to the hem. Perhaps this is a local variant specific to Denmark. Undershirt with wedges from Birka

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Dress Based on Birka's materials, it was assumed that this garment was knee-length and decorated with braid. It was also assumed that the outer dress was usually made of silk, and the cuffs of the sleeves were decorated with expensive embroidery. However, a clear picture is still missing. Not all women were buried in full costume, the fabric of different pieces of costume differs, and not all materials were preserved in different graves. In some cases, the dress (if worn) was made of diamond-weave wool or silk. The same observation can be applied to aprons, although in some cases their straps were made of linen. The same uncertainty is observed in the length of the robe. With such a small amount of surviving materials, it is possible to determine the length of the clothing only from the surviving fragments of braid.

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Consequently, the dress can also be considered as a rather short robe with valuable embroidery on the sides, as well as on the cuffs.

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Apron (apron) An apron (apron) was worn over the dress. By examining the number of loops that were fastened with tortoiseshell brooches, Fleming Bau identified at least four different complexes. When compared with the "Valkyrie figurines" the following was assumed. The apron was wrapped around the body, with the front part remaining open. Loops were sewn to the upper corners, to which tortoiseshell brooches were attached. Two additional loops were sewn from the back to the middle of the upper edge and, being thrown over the shoulders, were fastened to the front loops with brooches. In the second version, a long bib was added to the apron, which was fastened to the brooches. A beautiful illustration can be seen on the gold figurine for Hnefatafl from Tuze (Tuse, Denmark).

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The third option added to the previous one (apron and bib) a long train at the back, which was also attached with loops to tortoiseshell brooches. An illustration of this option can be found on a silver figurine of a Valkyrie from Tuna (Tuna, Sweden). The fourth option included an apron and pleated train, but no bib. The options for the location of the loops could be as follows (from left to right): One loop on top and two loops on the bottom for 1 option (apron and bib). Two loops at the top and two loops at the bottom for option 2 (apron, bib and train). Two loops on top and one loop on the bottom for option 3 (apron and train). Aprons were made of wool or silk, sometimes finished with embroidery or a wool or silk border. Information about the material of the train is unknown, but since wool does not retain folds well, the most likely would be silk or linen.

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Belts No belts were found in the Birka women's burials, which can be considered as a feature of the burials of the nobility, since it was assumed that there would be maids and workers to perform various housework: a spacious apron and chains would only get in the way in this case. However, the absence of belts can be interpreted as a characteristic feature of the funeral rite. Thus, men were buried with swords, which indicated that they were warriors and could enter Valhalla. In this case, the absence of belts in women's burials should have indicated that they were wealthy enough to have maids and workers to perform daily household needs. In practice, the tradition of wearing woven belts was widespread. Moreover, silver belt tips with remains of silk were discovered in some Birka burials. They may have belonged to woven silk belts, and some may have been worn by women.

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Outerwear On top of some aprons, as the finds show, another piece of clothing was worn. It had sleeves, but, unlike the men's caftan, this robe did not fasten with buttons. A brooch was used as a clasp, either three-leafed or disc-shaped round. The outerwear was probably made of silk or woolen tweed. Considering the presence of various types of decorations on items of women's costume, outer clothing was more than likely decorated with embroidery or braid. It is quite possible that it was the outerwear that was interpreted as a dress. The center shows a variant of outerwear decorated with embroidery from burial 735 Birki.

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The completion of the costume complex was a cape, which is clearly visible on the Valkyrie figures. Cape Capes or bedspreads were made of wool or silk and were sometimes trimmed with fur. The capes were fastened near the neck with brooches of various types. They must have been quite open at the front, since some Valkyrie figurines (Tuna, top first from left) and embroideries (Oseberg Tapestry (Norway), fourth from left show breast brooches even with a cape on.

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Headdresses According to all sagas, married women walked with their heads covered. However, none of the figures wear a headdress. Fragments of head coverings have also been found in sufficient quantity in Dublin, and an embroidered hood has been found in Orkney. In addition, there are expensive silk examples of finds from York and Lincoln. At the same time, in some pagan burials traces of a headdress can be traced. On the Oseberg tapestry (8th century AD), women's heads are covered, while no traces of headdresses were found in Christian burials. One can only conclude that while Scandinavian women could choose whether or not to wear a head covering, married Christian women were required to cover their heads.

The Vikings were on average 10 centimeters shorter than modern people. The man's height was 172 centimeters, and the woman's height was 158-160 centimeters. Of course, individuals could be much taller. Thus, there are burials of Vikings whose height reached 185 centimeters. In addition, archaeologists have proven that noble people in the Viking Age were much taller than their slaves, which was explained by the different “quality of life” of masters and servants.

Initially, the clothing of the people (men and women) living in the northern part of ancient Scandinavia consisted of short fur jackets and pants, a fur headdress and fur boots and gloves.

photo: followthevikings

The tribes living in the south probably dressed according to the German model: in a fur cloak and a jacket made from two skins. Amber beads and animal teeth were used for decoration.

photo: lykosleather

Weapons and utensils were made from flint, bones, horn and similar materials.

photo: followthevikings

Clothes were made from homespun fabric, but sometimes also from fabrics brought by the Vikings.

photo: wyrdvikingdesign

Women wore a loose shirt dress with long wide sleeves, and on top they put on an outer dress-sarafan with unsewn sides, the straps of which were fastened on the shoulders with paired brooches, and at the waist such a sundress was sometimes intercepted by a belt.

photo: followthevikings

In those days, buttons were not yet known and various pins, buckles and brooches were used as fasteners. In many houses, clothes were sewn up at the collar and sleeves every morning.

A shawl, pinned with a brooch, was usually thrown over the shoulders. Among Norman women, shell-shaped, ring-shaped and three-lobed brooches were especially common. The main material for Viking Age jewelry was bronze, often gilded and partially coated with tin or silver. Gold is a rarer material for “Viking” jewelry.

photo: wyrdvikingdesign

Married women covered their heads with a scarf.

Men dressed in a short tunic, tight-fitting pants, tied with ribbons at the waist, and a cloak, which was fastened with a fibula on the right shoulder, so as not to restrict movement in battle and to be able to draw a sword at any time without hindrance. A leather belt was worn around the waist, often with a buckle and a metal tip.

The Normans had soft leather shoes on their feet, which were tied with straps on the calves.

The Scandinavian dresses of the Viking Age - especially ceremonial ones - were distinguished by their extraordinary luxury.

Icelander Egil Skallagrimson received as a gift from a relative a silk cloak that reached to his feet, all embroidered with gold and seated from top to bottom with gold buttons. Indridi, a rich bond from Trondheim, whenever he went to the king, Olav son of Tryggvi, dressed in a red cloth dress; He put a heavy gold hoop on his right hand, and a silk cap woven with gold and trimmed with a chain of the same metal on his head.

As recounted in the Jomsviking Saga, the dress of one jarl was valued at 20 marks of gold. His hat alone had 10 marks worth of gold embroidery. The Viking Bui the Fat raided the estate of this jarl and plundered the house where the earl's jewelry was kept: he took two boxes filled with gold obtained in the raids.

As we already know, women occupied a special position in Norman society. She remained the main person in the estate when her husband went on a Viking campaign. And the symbol of the power of the mistress of the court was a bunch of keys, which was worn on the belt.

In pre-Christian times, that is, during the Viking Age, they wore dresses made of wool and linen. Samples of clothing from this period made from fabric made from animal hair and plant fibers have been preserved. There was coarse fabric (floki) and elegant fabric called vadmal, as well as dark-striped morend fabric.

Thanks to the sea voyages of the Vikings, the Scandinavians became acquainted with luxurious foreign materials. Expensive fabrics were also imported from Russia.

Men wore predominantly gray, brown or black dresses with white or green trim, while women preferred brighter ones. In excavations dating back to before the Viking Age, the following were found: a tunic-like jacket with long sleeves, pants with stockings sewn to them and loops sewn into the upper part for threading a belt through them.

In Schleswig and Jutland excavations also found: a semicircular cloak made of plush-like material; a shirt made of coarse woolen fabric held on shoulder pads, descending below the knees and belted with a long leather belt, woolen bandages and strips used to wrap the legs, leather shoes with cords and two hats made of coarse wool, semicircular and cylindrical in shape.

From the northern sagas and songs, covering the period from the 11th to the 13th centuries, we learn about the clothing that came into use at that time. The men's costume consisted of a shirt, pants, various jackets and raincoats, socks, stockings, shoes and hats. A rather narrow shirt (myrta), with a short chest slit and long sleeves, fit tightly around the neck, and was limited to it in household use. The shirt was made from linen, and for the kings from silk; very often all kinds of embroidery were done along the edges.

Pants were made of linen, cloth and soft leather; they were supported by a belt made of leather or made of the same material as the pants. Long, tapered pants were called broker; Long socks and stockings were worn with them. The shoes consisted of a piece of leather or skin tied to the leg with a belt.

In warm weather they wore jackets made of woolen material, in cold weather they wore fur jackets. A very short jacket that barely covered the hips was worn by representatives of the middle and lower classes.

photo:vikingvalley.no

In the 11th century, men, following the general European fashion, began to appear in long jackets laced to the side with trains; the long sleeves of these jackets were tied to the shoulders with cords.

These jackets were made from two-color cloth, and their sleeves were distinguished by rich trimmings. Noble people were girded with wide metal belts made of separate moving parts, decorated with buckles, precious stones and animal teeth. A knife or sword hung from a short chain attached to such a belt. Stockings with expensive garters and shoes that reached half the calves were put on the legs.

Raincoats were sewn with hoods and long sleeves. Since the 9th century, they have been tightly buttoned. A cloth mask was often attached to them to protect the face from the cold.

There were also cloaks equipped only with slits for the hands (olpa), made from wolf and bear skins for hiking. There were also jackets with a collar that covered the neck (presumably made of leather), called biulfi, which also served only for hiking.

Faldons were cloaks made of fur or wool that were draped over the shoulders.

The fisherman's cloak, which was pulled over the head and looked like a bag, was open on both sides and equipped with ties.

On holidays, they wore cloaks made of thin wool or silk fabric and decorated with embroidered borders. Cloaks were also made from silk, fastened at the shoulder, and they were also decorated with embroidery or fur.

Men loved to dress their wives and daughters beautifully according to their dignity and origin.

There were fathers who found this so important that, when giving their daughter in marriage, they made special conditions about it, like the Icelander Osvivr. When his daughter Gudrun was betrothed to Thorvald, son of Halldor, he, among various conditions, negotiated for her the same number of dresses as other women of equal origin and condition had. Torvald promised the bride that no woman would have such beautiful outfits as hers. Gudrun, after the wedding, showed such zeal for collecting clothes that there was not a jewel in the western quarter of Iceland that she did not want to have.

The headdress of all Scandinavians was a low, wide-brimmed hat, fastened with a narrow strap under the chin and made of leather, fur or felt. Hands were hidden in large mittens in cold weather.

The dress code of the lower classes, despite the influence of fashion, remained the same as in pagan times. This clothing consisted of a jacket with a yellow or green hood, linen trousers laced at the foot (if there were no stockings), a wide-brimmed hat and leather shoes.

Only since the influence of foreigners on Scandinavian clothing did women’s costumes begin to differ from men’s.

A long, sometimes even with a train, shirt with a large neckline appears. Poor women sewed such shirts from canvas or linen, and rich women, who wore them at home without outer clothing, made them from silk with luxurious embroidery along the edges, and the neckline on the chest was covered with a scarf.

The outer dress, according to German-Frankish custom, fit snugly in the upper part of the body, diverging downward in wide folds. The sleeves were either very long or short. The dress was tied at the waist with a cord or leather belt. Women carried a handbag, knives, scissors and keys on their belts.

Men's cloaks served as capes for women, and in harsh weather the head was covered with a hood. Women used the same hats, shoes and gloves as men.

Rich women often also wore something like a headband that covered their braided hair and consisted of colored or gold-embroidered linen ribbons. Wrapped around the head, these ribbons took the form of either a ball, or a sugar loaf, or some other fantastic shape.

Men wore long hair and beards. Only a free man and a virgin girl wore their hair loose over their shoulders: slaves and women of bad behavior had it cut off.

In the North, only blond hair was considered beautiful.

They were quite tolerant (from a beauty point of view) about brown hair color. The beloved folk god Thor had red hair. Therefore, it is not surprising that many kings and noble people are called redbeards in the sagas.

But black hair was considered ugly.

In combination with dark skin and a thick beard, they served as sure “signs” of a sorcerer or a dishonest, vile person. Slaves were usually represented in literature with black hair and dark skin. If, nevertheless, a black-haired person was considered beautiful, this was especially stipulated in the sagas. Thus, one saga says that Storvirk, the son of Starkad, had a beautiful face, although he had black hair.

Men, as we said above, wore long hair, but curls were considered decent only on women’s heads. The Norwegian king Magnus, the bare-legged son of Olav the Quiet, had soft, silky hair that fell onto his shoulders. The Viking Brody had black hair that reached his waist. At the end of the 12th century, at courts they wore hair no longer than up to the earlobe, combed smoothly; They cut them shorter on the forehead.

When describing beauties, they never forget to mention long silky hair. Ragnar Lodbrog, a glorious Viking, after the death of his beloved wife Thora, decided to remain a widower, entrusted the management of the kingdom to his sons, and he himself went on a sea voyage. One summer he arrived in Norway and sent his men ashore to bake bread. They soon returned back with burnt bread and apologized to the king, saying that they had met a beauty and, looking at her, did not get down to business as they should. It was Kraka, a very beautiful girl; her long hair touched the ground and shone like light silk. She became the wife of a famous Viking. The Icelander Hallgerd was considered no less beautiful: despite her tall stature, she could cover her entire body with long hair.

The girls walked around with their hair down; brides braided them; married women, as we have already said, covered their heads with a bandage, blanket or cap.

During excavations, patterned combs were found, which, apparently, were often used. Among the objects discovered by archaeologists are also nail pickers, tweezers, beautiful basins for washing and toothpicks.

There is also historical evidence of the use of eye dye by both men and women.

Ibn Fadlan left in 922 the following description of the “Rus” (Swedes) he saw: “I have not seen people with more perfect bodies than them. They are like palm trees, ruddy, beautiful. They wear neither jackets nor caftans, but men wear a cloak with which they cover one side, with one of the hands coming out of the cloak. Each husband has an axe, a sword and a knife. Their swords are flat, with grooves, Frankish. And from the edge of the nails to the neck they often have images of trees, people and various other things (tattoo. - N.B.). And on the chest of women there is a ring (fibula. - N.B.) attached either from iron, or copper, or silver, or gold, in accordance with the wealth of her husband ". And each ring has a box. Some women wear a knife attached to the ring. On their necks there are several rows of beads made of gold and silver... Their best decoration is green ceramic beads."

Both from the pre-Christian period and from the Middle Ages, all kinds of jewelry remained, which differed sharply both in work and in beauty from the jewelry of other European peoples. At first, the Roman influence was still noticeable on them, but then (in the Viking Age) they became completely independent both in design and execution.

Both sexes wore bracelets, rings and earrings, neck and head hoops, chains, pins, belts and buckles.

Various pendants were also very common. The main types of pendants were pagan and Christian amulets, the most popular of which was considered the hammer of Thor.

Jewelry served not only to “improve” one’s appearance, but was also a demonstration of the family’s wealth.

They had simple shapes and, as a rule, were correlated with a certain weight system so that the cost of such decoration could be easily determined. Sometimes jewelry was cut in half or into unequal parts to pay for a service or product. The kings presented their poets (skalds) with gold and silver hoops for songs of praise.

Vikings often wore horseshoe-shaped brooches on the right shoulder as a clasp for a cloak. However, gradually such brooches became a way to store their wealth. Some examples of such brooches that have survived to this day can weigh up to a kilogram. The pin for such a fibula should be up to half a meter long. It goes without saying that it was impossible to wear such a pin, but as an equivalent of wealth and money it was simply irreplaceable!

Jewelry of that time was most often made of silver. Nevertheless, gold brooches, hoops and hryvnias are also found in treasures and burials.

The most beautiful gold hryvnia was discovered on the island of Zealand near Lake Tisso. During spring sowing, it twisted onto the wheel axle of the seeder. This necklace was woven from thick gold threads of the highest standard and weighed (as archaeologists found) 1900 grams.

Russian hryvnia, which are also often found in Scandinavia, were most often used as a means of payment, because they usually had a standard weight. At the same time, they were often twisted into spirals and worn like hoops.

The man's beauty consisted of tall stature, broad shoulders, a well-built and trained body, bright lively eyes and white skin color. In addition, the man was required to maintain decency in manners and actions. At home he had to be hospitable, cheerful at feasts, eloquent at the Thing, generous to friends, ready to take revenge on enemies, inclined to help relatives and friends, take away wealth from enemies, brave and courageous in any case. And he also had to be good with weapons.

The combat outfit of the Scandinavians in earlier times was quite simple. The armor was a hard felt jacket, trimmed (in all likelihood, at a later time) with metal rings and plates.

At first, like all Germanic tribes, only the leaders used helmets. On one of the belt buckles they found an image of a helmet with a visor and a neck shield. Another such buckle (attributed to the Viking period) depicts a helmet decorated with two bird heads facing each other, sitting on long necks.

The shield of warriors of ancient times was round or oblong.

In the 12th century, chain mail armored shirts with hoods, pants and gloves came into use.

The weapons were the same as those of other Germanic peoples. Firstly, a characteristic short, sharpened only on one side, flexible German sword or long knife (blade length - 44-76 centimeters), called skramasax (or sax); then a long, straight, flat and double-edged sword (the successor to the ancient Roman sword - spatha), an axe, throwing and piercing spears and a bow with arrows.

Until the 11th century, Scandinavian clothing was worn by the Danes; however, the Danes preferred black clothing; Even at major festivals, noble Danes appeared in black silk robes. That’s why contemporary chroniclers always call the Danes “black.” Later, colored clothing also appeared, and during the landing of the Danes in England, they were seen wearing white and red jackets.

Having gained a foothold in the conquered country and adopted Christianity, the Danes abandoned Scandinavian clothing and donned Anglo-Saxon clothing.

The military attire of the Danes was leather armor, with metal plates inserted inside, attached to the leather top with metal rivets.

A tall, hemispherical helmet with a metal nosepiece was worn over a smooth hood.

Almost always, the red-painted shield was either round or crescent-shaped, Phrygian. The leaders wore white shields with emblems painted on them. These red, blue, yellow and green figures on the shields cannot yet be considered actual coats of arms, but they can be considered as prototypes of such.

The Danes used a double-edged sword, an axe, a double ax and a bow and arrows as weapons.

Vikings... This word became a common noun several centuries ago. It symbolizes strength, courage, bravery, but few people pay attention to detail. Yes, the Vikings achieved victories and became famous for them for centuries, but they got it not only thanks to their own qualities, but primarily through the use of the most modern and effective weapons.

A little history

The period of several centuries from the 8th to the 11th centuries is called the Viking Age in history. These Scandinavian peoples were distinguished by their militancy, courage and incredible fearlessness. The courage and physical health inherent in warriors were cultivated in all possible ways at that time. During the period of their unconditional superiority, the Vikings achieved great success in martial arts, and it did not matter where the battle took place: on land or at sea. They fought both in coastal areas and deep on the continent. Not only Europe became a battle arena for them. Their presence was also noted by the peoples of North Africa.

Excellence in the details

The Scandinavians fought with neighboring peoples not only for the sake of extraction and enrichment - they founded their settlements on the conquered lands. The Vikings decorated their weapons and armor with unique decorations. This is where artisans demonstrated their art and talent. Today it can be argued that it was in this area that they most fully revealed their skills. Viking weapons belonging to the lower social strata, photos of which amaze even modern craftsmen, depicted entire scenes. What can we say about the weapons of warriors belonging to the highest castes and having a noble origin.

What weapons did the Vikings have?

The warriors' weapons differed depending on the social status of their owners. Warriors of noble origin had swords and axes of various types and shapes. The weapons of the lower classes Vikings were mainly bows and sharpened spears of various sizes.

Protection Features

Even the most advanced weapons of those days sometimes could not fulfill their basic functions, because during the battle the Vikings were in fairly close contact with their enemy. The Viking's main defense in battle was a shield, since not every warrior could afford other armor. It protected mainly from throwing weapons. Most of them were large round shields. Their diameter was about a meter. He protected the warrior from his knees to his chin. Often the enemy would deliberately break the shield in order to deprive the Viking of his protection.

How was the Viking shield made?

The shield was made of boards 12-15 cm thick, sometimes there were even several layers. They were fastened together with a specially created glue, and the layer was often ordinary shingles. For greater strength, the top of the shield was covered with the skin of killed animals. The edges of the shields were reinforced with bronze or iron plates. The center was the umbon - a semicircle made of iron. He protected the Viking's hand. Let us note that not every person was able to hold such a shield in his hands, and even during a battle. This once again testifies to the incredible physical characteristics of the warriors of those times.

The Viking shield is not just protection, but also a work of art

To prevent a warrior from losing his shield during a battle, they used a narrow belt, the length of which could be adjusted. It was attached from the inside on opposite edges of the shield. If it was necessary to use other weapons, the shield could easily be thrown behind the back. This was also practiced during transitions.

Most of the painted shields were red, but they were also found with various bright paintings, the complexity of which depended on the skill of the artisan.

But like everything that came from ancient times, the shape of the shield underwent changes. And already by the beginning of the 11th century. The warriors acquired so-called almond-shaped shields, which differed favorably from their predecessors in shape, protecting the warrior almost completely up to the middle of the shin. They were also distinguished by significantly lower weight compared to their predecessors. However, they were inconvenient for battles on ships, and they occurred more and more often, and therefore did not become particularly widespread among the Vikings.

Helmet

The warrior's head was usually protected by a helmet. Its original frame was formed by three main stripes: 1 - forehead, 2nd - from forehead to back of head, 3rd - from ear to ear. 4 segments were attached to this base. On the top of the head (in the place where the stripes crossed) there was a very sharp spike. The warrior's face was partially protected by a mask. A chainmail mesh called aventail was attached to the back of the helmet. Special rivets were used to connect the parts of the helmet. Small metal plates were used to form a hemisphere - a helmet cup.

Helmet and social status

At the beginning of the 10th century, the Vikings began wearing conical helmets, and a straight nose plate served to protect the face. Over time, they were replaced by solid-forged helmets with a chin strap. There is an assumption that a fabric or leather lining was fastened inside with rivets. Fabric liners reduced the force of a blow to the head.

Ordinary warriors did not have helmets. Their heads were protected by hats made of fur or thick leather.

The helmets of wealthy owners had decorations and colored markings; they were used to identify warriors in battle. Headdresses with horns, which abound in historical films, were extremely rare. In the Viking Age, they personified higher powers.

Chainmail

The Vikings spent most of their lives in battle and, therefore, knew that wounds often became inflamed, and treatment was not always qualified, which led to tetanus and blood poisoning, and often death. That is why armor helped to survive in harsh conditions, but allowed one to wear it in the 8th-10th centuries. Only wealthy warriors could.

Short-sleeved, thigh-length chain mail was worn by the Vikings in the 8th century.

The clothing and weapons of different classes differed significantly. Ordinary warriors used and sewed on bone and later metal plates for protection. Such jackets were able to perfectly repel a blow.

Particularly valuable component

Subsequently, the length of the chain mail increased. In the 11th century slits appeared on the floors, which was greatly welcomed by the riders. More complex details appeared in the chain mail - a face flap and a balaclava, which helped protect the warrior’s lower jaw and throat. Her weight was 12-18 kg.

The Vikings treated chain mail very carefully, because the life of a warrior often depended on it. Protective robes were of great value, so they were not left on the battlefield and were not lost. Chain mail was often passed down from generation to generation.

Lamellar armor

It is also worth noting that they entered the Viking arsenal after raids in the Middle East. This shell is made of iron lamellae. They were laid in layers, slightly overlapping each other, and connected with a cord.

Viking armor also includes striped bracers and leggings. They were made from metal strips, the width of which was about 16 mm. They were fastened with leather straps.

Sword

The sword occupies a dominant position in the Viking arsenal. For warriors, he was not just a weapon that brought inevitable death to the enemy, but also a good friend, providing magical protection. The Vikings perceived all other elements as required for battle, but the sword is a different story. The history of the family was associated with it, it was passed down from generation to generation. The warrior perceived the sword as an integral part of himself.

Viking weapons are often found in warrior burials. The reconstruction allows us to get acquainted with its original appearance.

At the beginning of the Viking Age, patterned forging was widespread, but over time, through the use of better ores and modernization of furnaces, it became possible to produce blades that were more durable and lighter. The shape of the blade also became different. The center of gravity has moved to the handle, and the blades sharply taper towards the end. This weapon made it possible to deliver quick and accurate strikes.

Double-edged swords with rich hilts were the ceremonial weapons of wealthy Scandinavians, but were not practical in battle.

In the VIII-IX centuries. Frankish-style swords appeared in the Vikings' arsenal. They were sharpened on both sides, and the length of the straight blade, tapering to a rounded tip, was slightly less than a meter. This gives reason to believe that such a weapon was also suitable for chopping.

The handles on the swords were of different types; they differed in hilts and head shape. To decorate the handles, silver and bronze were used in the early period, as well as coining.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the handles were decorated with ornaments made of copper strips and tin. Later, in the designs on the handle, one could find geometric figures on a tin plate, which were inlaid with brass. The contours were emphasized by copper wire.

Thanks to the reconstruction on the middle part of the handle, we can see a handle made of horn, bone or wood.

The scabbard was also made of wood - they were sometimes covered with leather. Inside, the sheath was lined with soft material, which still protected the blade from oxidation products. Often it was oiled leather, waxed cloth or fur.

Surviving Viking Age drawings give us an idea of ​​how the scabbard was worn. At first they were on a sling thrown over the shoulder on the left. Later, the scabbard began to be hung from the waist belt.

Saxon

Viking bladed weapons can also be represented by the Saxon. It was used not only on the battlefield, but also on the farm.

The sax is a knife with a wide spine, the blade of which is sharpened on one side. All Saxons, judging by the results of excavations, can be divided into two groups: long ones, whose length is 50-75 cm, and short ones, up to 35 cm long. It can be argued that the latter are the prototype of daggers, most of which are also brought to the status by modern masters works of art.

Axe

The weapon of the ancient Vikings is an axe. After all, most of the soldiers were not rich, and such an item was available in any household. It is worth noting that the kings also used them in battles. The handle of the ax was 60-90 cm, and the cutting edge was 7-15 cm. At the same time, it was not heavy and allowed maneuvering during the battle.

A Viking weapon, barbed axes, were primarily used in naval battles as they had a square protrusion at the bottom of the blade and were excellent for boarding.

A special place should be given to the ax with a long handle - the ax. The blade of the ax could be up to 30 cm, the handle - 120-180 cm. It was not for nothing that it was the favorite weapon of the Vikings, because in the hands of a strong warrior it became a very formidable weapon, and its impressive appearance immediately undermined the morale of the enemy.

Viking weapons: photos, differences, meanings

The Vikings believed that weapons had magical powers. It was kept for a long time and passed on from generation to generation. Warriors with wealth and position decorated axes and axes with ornaments and precious and non-ferrous metals.

Sometimes the question is asked: what was the main weapon of the Vikings - a sword or an ax? The warriors were fluent in these types of weapons, but the choice always remained with the Viking.

A spear

Viking weapons cannot be imagined without a spear. According to legends and sagas, northern warriors greatly revered this type of weapon. Purchasing a spear did not require any special expenses, since they made the shaft themselves, and the tips were easy to manufacture, although they differed in appearance and purpose and did not require a lot of metal.

Any warrior could be armed with a spear. Its small size made it possible to hold it with both two and one hand. Spears were used mainly for close combat, but sometimes also as throwing weapons.

Particular attention should be paid to the spear tips. At first, the Vikings had spears with lancet-shaped tips, the working part of which was flat, with a gradual transition into a small crown. Its length ranges from 20 to 60 cm. Subsequently, spears with tips of different shapes from leaf-shaped to triangular in cross-section were encountered.

The Vikings fought on different continents, and their gunsmiths skillfully used elements of enemy weapons in their work. The weapons of the Vikings 10 centuries ago underwent a change. Spears were no exception. They became more durable due to reinforcement at the transition point to the crown and were quite suitable for ramming attacks.

There was essentially no limit to the perfection of spear handling. It has become a kind of art. The most experienced warriors in this matter not only threw spears with both hands at the same time, but could also catch it on the fly and send it back to the enemy.

Dart

To conduct combat operations at a distance of about 30 meters, a special Viking weapon was needed. Its name is dart. It was quite capable of replacing many more massive weapons when used skillfully by a warrior. These are light one and a half meter spears. Their tips could be like those of ordinary spears or similar to a harpoon, but sometimes there were stalked ones with a double-spike part and socketed ones.

Onion

This common weapon was usually made from a single piece of elm, ash or yew. It served for long-distance combat. Bow arrows up to 80 centimeters long were made from birch or coniferous trees, but always old ones. Wide metal tips and special plumage distinguished the Scandinavian arrows.

The length of the wooden part of the bow reached two meters, and the bowstring was most often woven hair. It required enormous strength to operate such weapons, but this is what the Viking warriors were famous for. The arrow hit the enemy at a distance of 200 meters. The Vikings used bows not only in warfare, so the arrowheads were very different, given their purpose.

Sling

This is also a Viking throwing weapon. It was not difficult to make it with your own hands, since you only needed a rope or belt and a leather “cradle” into which a round-shaped stone was placed. A sufficient number of stones were collected when landing on the coast. Once in the hands of a skilled warrior, the sling is capable of sending a stone to hit an enemy a hundred meters from the Viking. The principle of operation of this weapon is simple. One end of the rope was attached to the warrior’s wrist, and he held the other in his fist. The sling was rotated, increasing the number of revolutions, and the fist was unclenched at maximum. The stone flew in a given direction and struck the enemy.

The Vikings always kept their weapons and armor in order, because they perceived them as part of themselves and understood that the result of the battle depended on it.

Undoubtedly, all of the listed types of weapons helped the Vikings gain fame as invincible warriors, and if the enemies were very afraid of the weapons of the Scandinavians, the owners themselves treated them with great respect and reverence, often giving them names. Many types of weapons that took part in bloody battles were passed down by inheritance and served as a guarantee that the young warrior would be brave and decisive in battle.